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This article aims to summarize the background of well-known and not so well-known Soviet rocket engines, the history of their development, their main characteristics, and the rockets they flew on.

本文旨在總結著名的和不太著名的蘇聯火箭發動機的背景、發展歷史、主要特點，以及參與飛行過的火箭。

TABLE OF CONTENTS 目錄

（長篇文章可根據自己的喜好跳轉到相應的部分）

1、Important Tips And Vocabulary

重要提示和詞彙

• Open Cycle Engines 開式循環發動機
• Closed Cycle Engines 閉式循環發動機
• Hypergolic Propellants 自燃型推進劑
• LOx-based Propellants 基於液氧的推進劑
• Specific Impulse (ISP) 比沖
• Combustion Chamber 燃燒室
• OKB 實驗設計局（Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro）
• RD = Rocket Engine 火箭引擎
• NK = Nikolay Kuznetsov 尼古拉·庫茲涅佐夫（NK 只是他的首字母縮寫）
• S5.XX 除了 RD 和 NK 引擎，還有一些 S5.XX 引擎

2、The Origins Of Soviet Rocket Engines

蘇聯火箭發動機的起源

• A4 Engine A4引擎Characteristics 特徵
• Leading Rocket Scientists 領先的火箭科學家
• RD-100
• RD-101
• RD-102 And RD-103
• KS-50 (Liliput)
• RD-110

3、R-7 Family Of Engines

R-7引擎家族

• RD-107 And RD-108Development 發展Characteristics 特徵
• RD-117 And RD-118
• RD-107A And RD-108A
• Upper Stage Of R-7 R-7的初級階段
• RD-109
• RD-0105
• RD-0109
• RD-0106, RD-0107, RD-0110
• RD-0124
• Fourth Stage Of R-7 R-7的第四階段
• S1.5400
• S5.92

4、Yangel’s Hypergolic Rockets

楊格爾的自燃型火箭

• RD-214, RD-215, RD-216
• RD-119
• RD-217, RD-218, RD-219Nedelin Disaster 尼德林災難
• RD-251, RD-252
• RD-861
• RD-261, RD-262
• RD-263, RD-264

5、Universal Family Of Rockets

通用型火箭家族

• RD-268
• RD-0202, RD-0203, RD-0204
• RD-0205, RD-0206, RD-0207
• RD-253
• RD-253 On The Proton Rocket
• First Stage Of Proton 質子的第一級RD-275, RD-275M
• Second Stage Of Proton 質子的第二級RD-0208/9, RD-0210/11
• ThiRD Stage Of Proton 質子的第三級RD-0212, RD-0213, RD-0214
• Fourth Stage Of Proton 質子的第四級RD-58, RD-58M, RD-58S, RD-58MFS5.98M
• RD-270

6、N1 Rocket Engines

N1 火箭引擎

• NK-9
• NK-15
• NK-33NK-33 On The Antares Rocket (安塔斯火箭)
• NK-15V
• NK-19
• NK-21
• RD-58
• RD-56, RD-57

7、Energia / Buran

能源號/暴風雪號

• RD-170DevelopmentCharacteristics
• RD-0120
• RD-58M
• RD-171
• RD-171M
• RD-120
• RD-58, S5.92

8、Soviet Engines Outside The Soviet Union

蘇聯境外的蘇系火箭

• RD-180
• RD-181
• RD-191
• RD-191
• YF-100
• CE-7.5
• S2.253

9、A Few More Special Engines

一些特殊的引擎

• RD-0410
• RD-301
• RD-501/502
• RD-701/704
• Start-1 Rocket

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本篇將介紹：

1、Important Tips And Vocabulary

重要提示和詞彙

2、The Origins Of Soviet Rocket Engines

蘇聯火箭發動機的起源

3、R-7 Family Of Engines

R-7 火箭引擎家族

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1、Important Tips And Vocabulary

重要提示和詞彙

OPEN CYCLE AND CLOSE CYCLE ENGINES

開式循環和閉式循環發動機

Open Cycle Engines

開式循環發動機

In open cycle engines, the exhaust gas that is used to spin the turbine is simply discaRDed overboaRD from the gas generator. This is a simpler engine Design than its counterpart, the closed cycle engine. However, it is less efficient, as a portion of propellant never reaches the main combustion chamber and, thus, is wasted.

在開式循環發動機中，用於旋轉渦輪機的廢氣只是從氣體發生器中被丟棄到引擎外。這是一種比其對應的閉式循環發動機更簡單的發動機設計。然而，它的效率較低，因為一部分推進劑從未到達主燃燒室，因此被浪費了。

Closed Cycle Engines

閉式循環發動機

Closed cycle engines (or staged combustion cycle) have a pre-burner instead of a gas generator. It runs either all the fuel or all the oxidizer through the turbine, and then routes this now-hot gas into the main combustion chamber. This way no propellant is wasted. You can find more information on this topic in our video and/or article about SpaceX’s Raptor engine.

閉式循環發動機（或分階段燃燒循環）有一個預燃燒器，而不是一個氣體發生器。它通過渦輪機運行所有的燃料或所有的氧化劑，然後將這些現在很熱的氣體導入主燃燒室。這樣就沒有推進劑被浪費掉。你可以在我們關於SpaceX的猛禽發動機的視頻和/或文章中找到關於這個主題的更多信息。

PROPELLENT TYPES

推進劑類型

Hypergolic Propellants

自燃型推進劑

Hypergolic propellants are those that spontaneously combust upon contact with each other. This yields a very simple and reliable ignition sequence. Hypergolic propellants can be stored at room temperature and for long periods of time, however, this type of fuel is extremely toxic and corrosive.

自燃型推進劑是那些在相互接觸時自發燃燒的推進劑。這產生了一個非常簡單和可靠的點火順序。高濃縮推進劑可以在室溫下長期儲存，然而，這種類型的燃料具有極大的毒性和腐蝕性。

LOx-based Propellants

基於液氧的推進劑

LOx-based propellants are those that use liquid oxygen (LOx) as an oxidizer. Depending on the fuel component, there can be keralox (kerosene-based fuel), hydrolox (hydrogen-based fuel), and methalox (methane-based fuel). Keralox fuel used by Soviet rocket engines is called T-1 or RG-1 (not RP-1) and was comparable to regular kerosene. The haRDest part about a LOx-based propellant is to keep it at working temperatures without it warming up and boiling off before the launch.

基於液氧的推進劑是那些使用液態氧（LOx）作為氧化劑的推進劑。根據燃料成分的不同，可以有keralox（煤油基燃料）、hydrolox（氫基燃料）和methalox（甲烷基燃料）。蘇聯火箭發動機使用的Keralox燃料被稱為T-1或RG-1（不是RP-1），與普通煤油相當。以液氧為基礎的推進劑最難的部分是使其保持在工作溫度，而不在發射前升溫和沸騰。

SPECIFIC IMPULSE (ISP) 比沖

ISP indicates how efficient the rocket engine is. It is measured in seconds, and the higher it is, the better. The best way to think about specific impulse is to imagine an engine with 1 kg of propellant. The amount of time (in seconds) that the engine can produce 9.81 N of force is its ISP. Thus, the higher the ISP, the less fuel it takes to perform the same amount of work.

ISP表明火箭發動機的效率如何。它的單位是秒，越高越好。思考比沖的最好方法是想像一個有1公斤推進劑的發動機。該發動機能夠產生9.81牛的力的時間（以秒為單位）就是它的ISP。因此，ISP越高，做同樣數量的功所需的燃料就越少。

COMBUTION CHAMBER 燃燒室

The combustion chamber of a rocket engine is where the fuel and oxidizer get pumped in and meet at high pressure so they can combust and produce thrust. The larger the combustion chamber, the higher the thrust output. However, the larger it is, the haRDer it is to maintain stable combustion and homogeneous pressure within it, which can lead to massive failures in which the engine can blow up.

火箭發動機的燃燒室是燃料和氧化劑被泵入並在高壓下相遇的地方，以便它們能夠燃燒並產生推力。燃燒室越大，推力輸出就越高。然而，它越大，就越難在其中保持穩定的燃燒和均勻的壓力，這可能會導致發動機爆炸的大規模故障。

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN BUREAU

實驗設計局

OKB 實驗設計局

Experimental Design Bureaus (OKB, Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro) were state-owned bureaus that mostly designed and produced weapons and military technology. They were very competitive with each other for different projects. One of these OKBs, formerly known as OKB-456, home of legendary propulsion engineer Valentin Glushko, is today known as NPO Energomash and is still producing engines and rockets.

實驗設計局（OKB，Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro）是國有的局，主要設計和生產武器和軍事技術。他們在不同的項目中相互競爭，非常激烈。其中一個OKB，以前被稱為OKB-456，是傳奇的推進工程師瓦倫丁-格盧什科的故鄉，今天被稱為NPO Energomash，仍然在生產發動機和火箭。

RD SERIES OF ENGINES

RD 系列引擎

RD = Rocket Engine

RD = 火箭引擎

RD literally translates to Rocket Engine. There is an RD-0XXX series that came from OKB-154 led by Semyon Kosberg and tends to be used on upper stages or at least operates in a vacuum (with few exceptions). RD-1XX and RD-2XX engines were designed by OKB-456. The former tends to be LOx-based engines, while the latter ran on hypergolic propellants. Furthermore there was the RD-XX series mostly developed at OKB-1, the headquarters of the Soviet space program led by Sergei Korolev. Some RD-XX engines were developed by OKB-165, led by Arkhip Lyulka, despite OKB-165 primarily being an aircraft engine manufacturer. RD-8XX engines came from OKB-586, led by Mikhail Yangel.

RD的字面意思是火箭發動機。有一個RD-0XXX系列，來自塞米揚-科斯貝格領導的OKB-154，傾向於用於上面級或至少在真空中運行（有少數例外）。RD-1XX和RD-2XX發動機是由OKB-456設計的。前者往往是以液氧為基礎的發動機，而後者則以高聚物推進劑運行。此外，還有RD-XX系列，主要是在OKB-1開發的，這是謝爾蓋-科羅廖夫領導的蘇聯太空計劃的總部。一些RD-XX發動機是由Arkhip Lyulka領導的OKB-165開發的，儘管OKB-165主要是一個飛機發動機製造商。RD-8XX發動機來自OKB-586，由米哈伊爾-揚格領導。

NK SERIES OF ENGINES

NK 系列引擎

NK = Nikolay Kuznetsov

庫茲涅佐夫

NK engines came from OKB-276, Kuznetsov’s design bureau. Nikolay Kuznetsov (NK is simply his initials) was an aircraft engine manufacturer who designed some of the most advanced engines. For instance, his NK-32 was a jet engine on the TU-160 strategic bomber, while the NK-33 is a rocket engine meant for a variant of the N-1 rocket.

NK發動機來自OKB-276，庫茲涅佐夫的設計局。尼古拉-庫茲涅佐夫（NK只是他名字的縮寫）是一個飛機發動機製造商，他設計了一些最先進的發動機。例如，他的NK-32是TU-160戰略轟炸機上的噴氣式發動機，而NK-33則是用於N-1火箭的一個變種的火箭發動機。

S5.XX SERIES ENGINES

S5.XX 系列引擎

S5.XX 引擎

Next to RD and NK engines, there were also some S5.XX engines. These engines were developed and built by OKB-2 led by Aleksei Isaev. OKB-2 primarily produced smaller rocket engines for missiles with the exception of S5.XX engines.

In addition, all Soviet engines are assigned with GRAU indices by the Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. For example, the RD-107 engine’s index is 8D74. However, this system will not be used in this article.

除了RD和NK發動機之外，還有一些S5.XX發動機。這些發動機是由阿列克謝-伊薩耶夫領導的OKB-2公司開發和製造的。OKB-2主要生產用於飛彈的小型火箭發動機，但S5.XX發動機除外。

此外，所有的蘇聯發動機都被俄羅斯聯邦國防部的主要飛彈和火炮局分配了GRAU的指數。例如，RD-107發動機的指數是8D74。然而，本文將不使用這一系統。

2、The Origins Of Soviet Rocket Engines

蘇聯火箭發動機的起源

V-2 ROCKET

V-2 火箭

A4 Engine

A4 引擎

The origins of the first Soviet rocket engines stem from World War II when rockets were not used for noble goals, but rather as a terrifying weapon. It all started with the Nazi designed V-2 rocket. Although the A4 engine at the heart of the V-2 was not the first liquid-fueled rocket engine developed, it was certainly the first reliable one to reach space by crossing the Kármán line (an international definition that marks the edge of space and is defined as 100 km above sea level).

第一批蘇聯火箭發動機的起源源於第二次世界大戰，當時火箭不是用於崇高的目標，而是作為一種可怕的武器。這一切都始於納粹設計的V-2火箭。儘管作為V-2火箭核心的A4發動機並不是第一個開發的液體燃料火箭發動機，但它肯定是第一個通過跨越卡曼線（一個標誌著太空邊緣的國際定義，被定義為海拔100公里）到達太空的可靠發動機。

The V-2 rocket brought a huge breakthrough in rocketry. The Germans solved one of the biggest problems of liquid-fueled engines – combustion instability. Their solution was to take smaller injectors and put them into a single main combustion chamber. The A4 wound up with eighteen injector cups and had a basket-like head configuration.

V-2火箭帶來了火箭技術的巨大突破。德國人解決了液體燃料發動機的最大問題之一——燃燒不穩定。他們的解決方案是採用較小的噴油器，並將其放入一個主燃燒室。A4最終有18個噴油器杯，並有一個類似籃子的頭部結構。

Characteristics

The V-2 rocket produced 265 kN of thrust at sea level and 294 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of just over 200 s at sea level and 239 s in a vacuum. Although these numbers are not impressive by today’s standaRDs, this was only the beginning. The A4 engine ran at only 15 bar of pressure, on a 75% ethanol / 25% water mixture fuel, and used LOx as an oxidizer. The pumps of these engines were steam-powered by a separate system that ran hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) over a potassium permanganate (KMnO4) catalyst to create high-pressure steam, which would then spin the turbine that powered the pumps.

特點

V-2火箭在海平面產生265千牛的推力，在真空中產生294千牛的推力，在海平面的ISP略高於200秒，在真空中為239秒。儘管以今天的標準來看，這些數字並不令人印象深刻，但這僅僅是個開始。A4發動機在只有15巴的壓力下運行，使用75%的乙醇/25%的水混合燃料，並使用液氧作為氧化劑。這些發動機的泵由一個單獨的系統提供蒸汽動力，該系統在高錳酸鉀（KMnO4）催化劑上運行過氧化氫（H2O2）以產生高壓蒸汽，然後使渦輪機旋轉，為泵提供動力。

ATTEMPS TO REPLICATE THE V-2 ROCKET

複製 V-2 火箭的嘗試

Leading Rocket Scientists

領先的火箭科學家

During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union tried to outdo each other with more powerful and longer-range missiles carrying nuclear warheads. They each gathered thousands of former German rocket scientists who could help them to develop their own rockets. In the US, Wernher von Braun put a lot of effort into this. In the Soviet Union, it was Sergei Korolev (born in Ukraine) who was tasked with leading the former German scientists.

冷戰期間，美國和蘇聯都試圖以更強大和更遠距離的攜帶核彈頭的飛彈來超越對方。他們各自聚集了數以千計的前德國火箭科學家，以幫助他們開發自己的火箭。在美國，沃納-馮-布勞恩為此付出了大量的努力。在蘇聯，是謝爾蓋-科羅廖夫（生於烏克蘭）負責領導前德國科學家。

RD-100 引擎

Korolev and his team of Soviet and former German engineers began reverse-engineering the V-2 rocket and the A4 engine, and rebuilding them. This way they built the RD-100 engine which was almost a clone of the A4, at least externally. In fact, there were some parts still machined in Germany in the old factories.

科羅廖夫和他的蘇聯前德國工程師團隊開始對V-2火箭和A4發動機進行逆向工程，並重建它們。這樣，他們製造了RD-100發動機，它幾乎是A4的克隆，至少在外觀上是如此。事實上，有一些零件仍然在德國的舊工廠中加工。

RD-101 引擎

At the same time, Korolev and Glushko (OKB-456) wanted to make a modified version of the RD-100 which would not have any direct involvement from Germans and would only use Soviet fabricated parts. This was the RD-101 engine. It had only minor tweaks and took inspiration from some of Glushko’s former works, such as his RD-1, when it came to materials.

同時，科羅廖夫和格魯什科（OKB-456）想製造一個RD-100的改進版，它不會有德國人的直接參與，只使用蘇聯製造的部件。這就是RD-101發動機。它只做了一些小的調整，並且在材料方面從格盧什科以前的一些作品中獲得了靈感，例如他的RD-1。

RD-102 and RD-103

RD-102 和 RD-103 引擎

By the end of 1949, there would be the RD-102 and RD-103 upgrades, which were the last engines based on the A4. These engines had substantially shortened engine thrust frames and were regeneratively cooled, in which some of the propellant or water was passed through tubes around the combustion chamber to cool the engine. Moreover, the RD-103 used a new oxygen mixing nozzle which used a more concentrated 92% ethyl alcohol fuel. This aided in performance and yielded a thrust of 500 kN in a vacuum, which almost doubled the thrust output of the A4’s 294 kN. The RD-103 could achieve an ISP of 244 s at sea level and 251 s in a vacuum.

到1949年底，有RD-102和RD-103的升級，這是最後一個基於A4的發動機。這些發動機大大縮短了發動機的推力框架，並且是再生冷卻的，其中一些推進劑或水通過燃燒室周圍的管道來冷卻發動機。此外，RD-103使用了一個新的氧氣混合噴嘴，它使用了一個更濃縮的92%的乙醇燃料。這有助於提高性能，在真空中產生500千牛的推力，這幾乎是A4的294千牛推力輸出的兩倍。RD-103在海平面上可以達到244秒的ISP，在真空中可以達到251秒。

NEW DESIGN OF THE ENGINES

引擎的新設計

KS-50 (Liliput)

KS-50 引擎（Liliput引擎）

In 1950, Sergei Korolev got his own experimental bureau, OKB-1 (known today as RSC Energia), where the future of the Soviet space program would be developed.

Around that time, German scientists tried to simplify the design for chambers and injectors. Up until that point, all of the engines had a basket-like head with eighteen separate injector cups. However, there was a design for the injectors patented in Germany that was more of a showerhead shape. The engineers built a test chamber for these injectors and made a new style of engine called Liliput or KS-50. This chamber was a very simple cylindrical shape. Its walls had a 1-mm thick copper coating, which had greater thermal conductivity and could handle higher temperatures.

The KS-50 was the first engine capable of running on kerosene, which potentially provided much greater performance with the negative side effect of much higher temperatures. It was also the last engine developed with the direct involvement of German engineers.

1950年，謝爾蓋-科羅廖夫有了自己的實驗局，OKB-1（今天被稱為RSC Energia），蘇聯太空計劃的未來將在這裡發展。

那時，德國科學家試圖簡化腔室和噴射器的設計。到那時為止，所有的發動機都有一個籃子一樣的頭部，有十八個獨立的噴油杯。然而，有一個在德國獲得專利的噴油器設計，更像是一個淋浴頭的形狀。工程師們為這些噴油器建造了一個試驗室，並製造了一種新式發動機，稱為Liliput或KS-50。這個試驗室是一個非常簡單的圓柱形。它的牆壁有一個1毫米厚的銅塗層，具有更大的導熱性，可以處理更高的溫度。

KS-50是第一台能夠使用煤油的發動機，它可能提供更大的性能，但也有更高溫度的負面影響。這也是蘇聯最後一款由德國工程師直接參與開發的發動機。

RD-110 引擎

The lessons learned from the KS-50 came in handy when Glushko was trying to create the RD-110, a new engine capable of producing almost 1,200 kN of thrust at sea level. The RD-110 was supposed to fly on a new R-3 rocket that lacked any exterior aerodynamic fins for stability. Instead, it relied entirely on gimbaling the engine to steer and control the rocket. The plan was to use eighteen injectors, each with about 70 kN of thrust. In oRDer to develop these injectors, Soviet scientists engineered another experimental combustion chamber, the ED-140 (ED translates to 「experimental engine」).

The RD-110 engine was very reliable, capable of running continually, and with a very consistent start up. But despite that, it was never test-fired, likely due to concerns over cooling. However, the ED-140’s DNA would see the light of day in another engine, the RD-107. In fact, its combustion chamber is still at the heart of one of the most famous Soviet rockets, the Soyuz-2.

當格魯什科試圖創建RD-110時，從KS-50中吸取的教訓派上了用場，這是一種能夠在海平面產生近1200千牛推力的新發動機。RD-110應該在一個新的R-3火箭上飛行，該火箭缺乏任何外部空氣動力鰭以保持穩定。相反，它完全依靠發動機的萬向節來引導和控制火箭。計劃使用18個噴射器，每個噴射器有大約70千牛的推力。為了開發這些噴射器，蘇聯科學家設計了另一個實驗性燃燒室，即ED-140（ED譯為 "實驗性發動機"）。

RD-110發動機非常可靠，能夠持續運行，而且啟動時非常穩定。但儘管如此，它從未進行過試射，可能是因為擔心冷卻問題。然而，ED-140的DNA將在另一台發動機，即RD-107中看到曙光。事實上，它的燃燒室仍然是最著名的蘇聯火箭之一，聯盟-2號的核心。

3、R-7 Family Of Engines

R-7 火箭引擎家族

FIRST AND SECOND STAGES OF R-7

R-7 火箭的第一級和第二級

RD-107 and RD-108

RD-107 和 RD-108 引擎

Development

The R-7 was the first rocket to reach orbit. Originally, it had a very simple goal – to be able to carry a 3-tonne warhead over a distance of 8,000 km, which would make it possible to hit the USA from the Soviet Union. Glushko tried to scale up the ED-140 in a new design called the RD-105. However, he faced the problem of combustion instability. After that, he decided to split the combustion chamber into four smaller ones fed by a common turbopump, which solved the problem. In fact, this concept of multiple combustion chambers is a staple of many Soviet-era designs.

發展

R-7是第一枚進入軌道的火箭。最初，它有一個非常簡單的目標--能夠攜帶3噸重的彈頭超過8000公里的距離，這將使它能夠從蘇聯打擊美國。格魯什科試圖在一個名為RD-105的新設計中擴大ED-140的規模。然而，他遇到了燃燒不穩定的問題。之後，他決定將燃燒室分成四個較小的燃燒室，由一個共同的渦輪泵供給，這就解決了這個問題。事實上，這種多燃燒室的概念是許多蘇聯時代設計的主要內容。

The developed RD-107 engine (for Stage 1) and its twin sibling the RD-108 (for Stage 2) are still in use today! These engines first flew on May 15, 1957, on the first R-7 rocket, which featured four strap-on boosters (Stage 1) that surrounded a single core (Stage 2). The RD-107 and RD-108 are almost identical. In fact, the only difference is the number of vernier engines, the outer boosters with the RD-107 have a pair of them, while the center core with the RD-108 has four. In addition, these engines were a much more elegant solution compared to the heavy control vanes made of graphite that would steer the V-2.

開發的RD-107發動機（用於第1階段）和它的孿生兄弟RD-108（用於第2階段）至今仍在使用。 這些發動機於1957年5月15日在第一枚R-7火箭上首次飛行，該火箭有四個捆綁式助推器（第1級），圍繞著一個核心（第2級）。RD-107和RD-108幾乎是相同的。事實上，唯一的區別是游標引擎的數量，RD-107的外部助推器有一對，而RD-108的中心核心有四個。此外，與引導V-2的重型石墨控制葉片相比，這些發動機是一個更優雅的解決方案。

Characteristics 亮點

Ignition 點火

Both the RD-107 and RD-108 engines run on keralox. This allowed a simple ignition process where all cores of the rocket would be lit on the ground simultaneously and did not require starting an engine mid-flight. One of the interesting things about their ignition process is that the solution to light the engines is basically giant wooden matches. Those matches look like T-shaped structures which engineers would stick up the nozzle into the main combustion chamber. All 32 chambers (20 main ones and 12 steering nozzles known as vernier engines) get their own igniter. On the tip of these structures is a pair of pyrotechnics that only need one to light successfully for ignition. This concept is still in use today!

RD-107和RD-108的發動機都使用喀拉氧。這允許一個簡單的點火過程，所有火箭的核心將在地面上同時被點燃，不需要在飛行中啟動發動機。他們點火過程的一個有趣之處在於，點燃發動機的方案基本上是巨大的木製火柴。那些火柴看起來像T形結構，工程師們會將其從噴管上粘到主燃燒室中。所有32個燃燒室（20個主燃燒室和12個被稱為游標引擎的轉向噴嘴）都有自己的點火器。在這些結構的頂端是一對煙火劑，只需要一個就能成功點燃，進行點火。這個概念至今仍在使用!

Staging 階段性

The staging is relatively simple as all four boosters fall away at the same time. Meanwhile, a valve pops open in the LOx tank, which helps to propel the tanks away from the core stage in a pattern, known as the 「Korolev cross」.

分段是相對簡單的，因為所有四個助推器都同時落下。同時，液氧罐中的一個閥門突然打開，這有助於推動罐體以一種被稱為 "科羅廖夫十字 "的模式離開核心級。

Specifications 規格

The RD-107 could hit 810 kN of thrust at sea level and 1,000 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 256 s at sea level, and 313 s in a vacuum. Meanwhile, the RD-108 could reach 745 kN of thrust at sea level and 941 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 248 s at sea level, and 315 s in a vacuum. Thus, they achieved huge improvements over the early RD-100 engines. Furthermore, the turbopump of the RD-107/108 was powered by steam just like the A4. They ran H2O2 over a catalyst to create high-pressure hot gases that spun the turbine and powered the LOx and kerosene pumps. For this reason, there was also a fully separate tank to store H2O2. This is a very simple solution which is still in use today.

Overall, the main innovations of these engines included multiple combustion chambers, regenerative cooling, the aforementioned vernier engines, and variable mixture ratio, which helped each core to drain its propellant equally. Since the RD-107/108 first flew in 1957, these engines have gone through only minor changes. As the old adage goes: 「If it isn’t broken, why fix it?」

RD-107在海平面可以達到810千牛的推力，在真空中可以達到1000千牛，海平面的ISP為256秒，真空中為313秒。同時，RD-108在海平面可以達到745千牛的推力，在真空中可以達到941千牛，在海平面的ISP為248秒，在真空中為315秒。因此，他們比早期的RD-100發動機取得了巨大的改進。此外，RD-107/108的渦輪泵是由蒸汽驅動的，就像A4一樣。他們在催化劑上運行H2O2以產生高壓熱氣，使渦輪機旋轉並為液氧和煤油泵提供動力。出於這個原因，也有一個完全獨立的水箱來儲存H2O2。這是一個非常簡單的解決方案，至今仍在使用。

總的來說，這些發動機的主要創新包括多燃燒室、再生冷卻、上述的游標發動機和可變混合比，這有助於每個核心的推進劑的平均排出。自1957年RD-107/108首次飛行以來，這些發動機只經歷了微小的變化。正如那句老話所說。"如果它沒有壞，為什麼要修理它？"

RD-117 and RD-118

RD-117 和 RD-118 引擎

There were the RD-117/118 upgrades which flew 786 times from 1973 to 2017 on the Soyuz U and U2. They were very similar to the original RD-107/108 and had only minor structural changes. For example, they had different injectors, which increased their performance a little. Moreover, the RD-117/118 sometimes ran on a fuel called Syntin, a hydrocarbon-based fuel. This fuel also offered increased performance, however, it was much more expensive.

有RD-117/118的升級版，從1973年到2017年在聯盟U和U2上飛行了786次。它們與原來的RD-107/108非常相似，只有很小的結構變化。例如，它們有不同的噴射器，這使它們的性能提高了一點。此外，RD-117/118有時使用一種叫做Syntin的燃料，一種碳氫化合物燃料。這種燃料也提供了更高的性能，然而，它要昂貴得多。

RD-107A and RD-108A

RD-107A 和 RD-108A 引擎

Finally, there was the RD-107A/108A that flew 70 times from 2001 through 2019 on the Soyuz FG. In addition, these engines support the new Soyuz-2, which started flying in 2004 and is still in use today. Meanwhile, the center core of the Soyuz-2.1v rocket, which started flying in 2013, does not run on the RD-108A, but on the closed cycle NK-33 engine. This engine was developed for the Soviet Union’s massive N1F moon rocket.

The RD-107A produced 839 kN of thrust at sea level and 1,020 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 263 s at sea level and 320 s in a vacuum. Otherwise, they have very few changes compared to the original.

最後是RD-107A/108A，從2001年到2019年在聯盟號FG上飛行了70次。此外，這些發動機支持新的聯盟-2號，它在2004年開始飛行，至今仍在使用。同時，2013年開始飛行的聯盟-2.1v火箭的中心核心不在RD-108A上運行，而是在封閉循環的NK-33發動機上運行。這種發動機是為蘇聯龐大的N1F登月火箭開發的。

RD-107A在海平面產生839千牛的推力，在真空中產生1020千牛的推力，海平面的ISP為263秒，真空中為320秒。除此之外，與原版相比，它們的變化非常小。

THIRD STAGE OF R-7

R-7 火箭的第三級

Upper Stage of R-7

R-7火箭的上面級

In oRDer to increase its capacity, the R-7 rocket needed to have an upper (thiRD) stage. The first upper stage that they developed had a mighty task, to reach the Moon!

為了增加其容量，R-7火箭需要有一個上面（第三級）。他們開發的第一個上面級有一個強大的任務，那就是到達月球！這就是R-7的上面級。

RD-109 引擎

The Soviet Union began developing the 8K73 upper stage in 1957. For this, Glushko designed an RD-109 engine, which had an impressive ISP of 334 s and could produce 102 kN of thrust in a vacuum. The RD-109 ran on LOx and UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine), which is a very toxic fuel that Korolev did not like to use. As a result, this engine never saw a flight.

蘇聯在1957年開始研製8K73上面級。為此，格魯什科設計了一台RD-109發動機，它的ISP值為334秒，在真空中可以產生102千牛的推力，令人印象深刻。RD-109使用LOx和UDMH（不對稱二甲肼），這是一種非常有毒的燃料，科羅廖夫不喜歡使用。因此，這款發動機從未飛行過。

RD-0105 引擎

The Vostok variant of the R-7 wound up being the first R-7 rocket to have a thiRD stage called Block E, which made it more capable. This stage was powered by the RD-0105 engine (designed by Kosberg), which was based on the vernier engines on the RD-107/108 and ran on keralox. The RD-0105 could produce 49 kN of thrust in a vacuum at an ISP of 316 s.

R-7火箭的沃斯托克變體最終成為第一個擁有第三級的R-7火箭，被稱為E塊，這使得它的能力更強。該級由RD-0105發動機（由科斯貝格設計）提供動力，該發動機是基於RD-107/108上的游標發動機，以喀拉羅克斯為燃料。RD-0105可以在真空中產生49千牛的推力，ISP為316秒。

RD-0109 引擎

Meanwhile, Glushko wanted to upgrade the engine for an even more powerful upper stage for a version of Vostok – the Vostok-K. As a result, he developed the RD-0109, which had a lower mass and increased reliability thanks to its new lightweight combustion chamber. These improvements made it capable of putting Yuri Gagarin into orbit on April 12, 1961! Subsequently, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth (Mercury-Atlas 6) onboaRD Friendship 7 on February 20th, 1962.

與此同時，格魯什科想為 "東方號 "的一個版本--"東方號"--K升級發動機，以獲得更強大的上面級。因此，他開發了RD-0109，由於其新的輕質燃燒室，質量更低，可靠性更高。這些改進使它能夠在1961年4月12日將尤里-加加林送入軌道 隨後，約翰-格倫於1962年2月20日在友誼7號上成為第一個進入地球軌道的美國人（水星-阿特拉斯6號）。

One interesting aspect of the engine on this stage is that it starts its ignition sequence prior to stage separation. This process is called 「hot fire staging」 and it is possible because of the open interstage. Thanks to this feature, there was no need to have any other secondary motors to accelerate the upper stage to settle the propellant on the bottom of the tanks before turning on the engine. This is needed to avoid sucking up air bubbles and having rough starts that could damage the engines. Some other Soviet rockets also make use of this interstage design.

這個階段的發動機的一個有趣的方面是，它在階段分離之前就開始了它的點火順序。這個過程被稱為 "熱火分期"，它之所以能夠實現是因為級間的開放。由於這一特點，不需要有任何其他次級發動機來加速上級，以便在開啟發動機之前將推進劑沉澱在罐底。這是需要的，以避免吸進氣泡和有粗糙的啟動，從而損壞發動機。其他一些蘇聯火箭也利用了這種級間設計。

RD-0106, RD-0107, RD-0110 引擎

After that, there was an RD-0106, which was a four-chamber version of the RD-0105/0109 and offered over four times the thrust. It was used on the Block-I thiRD stage for the Molniya rocket that flew for the first time in 1960.

The RD-0106 was then slightly modified to the RD-0107 and after that to the RD-0108. It flew 300 times on the Voskhod R-7 from 1963 to 1976. Subsequently, there was the RD-0110, which saw its first flight in 1965 and is still in use today on the Soyuz-2.1a rocket.

此後，又出現了RD-0106，它是RD-0105/0109的四室版本，推力是四倍以上。它被用在1960年首次飛行的 "閃電 "火箭的Block-I第三級上。

隨後，RD-0106被稍微修改為RD-0107，之後又被修改為RD-0108。從1963年到1976年，它在Voskhod R-7上飛行了300次。隨後，出現了RD-0110，它在1965年進行了首次飛行，至今仍在聯盟-2.1a火箭上使用。

RD-0124 引擎

There was also the RD-0124, which is a closed cycle engine that the Soviets intended to use universally on several vehicles. It did not have any vernier engines and used RG-1 instead of the usual T-1 kerosene. This closed cycle engine offered an improved ISP of 359 s instead of 326 s, which was practical for larger payloads. It first started flying in 2006 and is still in use today on the Soyuz 2.1b.

還有RD-0124，它是一種封閉式循環發動機，蘇聯人打算在幾種車輛上普遍使用。它沒有任何游標引擎，使用RG-1而不是通常的T-1煤油。這種閉合循環發動機提供了一個改進的ISP，即359秒，而不是326秒，這對較大的有效載荷來說是實用的。它在2006年首次開始飛行，至今仍在聯盟2.1b號上使用。

FOURTH STAGE OF R-7

R-7 火箭的第四級

Fourth Stage of R-7

The R-7 also considered a fourth stage, even before Yuri Gagarin made his famous flight. It was first flown on the Molniya rocket, an early variant of the R-7 that flew 40 times with a 50% success rate. The performance of this rocket was even high enough for interplanetary missions.

R-7也考慮了第四級，甚至在尤里-加加林進行他的著名飛行之前。它首先在 "閃電 "火箭上飛行，這是R-7的一個早期變體，飛行了40次，成功率為50%。這種火箭的性能甚至高到可以進行星際飛行任務。

S1.5400 引擎

In 1958, the Soviets began developing a closed cycle oxygen-rich engine called S1.5400. Back then, this engine type was considered impossible by US engineers. Initially, this engine had only 64 kN of thrust in a vacuum. However, it could achieve an impressive ISP of 338 s. It was way ahead of its time for a keralox engine and it flew successfully in 1961 on a mission to Venus, the very first interplanetary probe! The real breakthrough was developing metals, such as titanium alloys, that could withstand harsh conditions, such as having hot gaseous oxygen blasting.

The S1.5400 engine became the basis for many engines for other rockets, despite having a very limited presence on the R-7 family and has only flown 4 times in total.

1958年，蘇聯開始開發一種名為S1.5400的封閉式循環富氧發動機。在當時，這種發動機類型被美國工程師認為是不可能的。最初，這種發動機在真空中只有64千牛的推力。然而，它可以達到338秒的令人印象深刻的ISP。它在當時的喀拉羅克斯發動機中遙遙領先，並且在1961年成功飛往金星的任務中，這是第一個星際探測器！真正的突破是開發金屬。真正的突破是開發金屬，如鈦合金，可以承受惡劣的條件，如有熱氣態氧爆破。

S1.5400發動機成為其他火箭許多發動機的基礎，儘管在R-7家族中的存在非常有限，總共只飛過4次。

S5.92 引擎

The Soyuz-U was the next R-7 to have a fourth stage powered by the S5.92 engine on the upper stage called Fregat, which first flew in 1973. It was a small open cycle hypergolic-fueled engine that produced 19.6 kN of thrust with an ISP of 327 s in a vacuum. It could be re-lit up to 50 times in space with up to 300 days between ignitions.

聯盟-U是下一個R-7，它的第四級由上級的S5.92發動機提供動力，稱為Fregat，它在1973年首次飛行。它是一個小型的開放式循環高醇燃料發動機，在真空中產生19.6千牛的推力，ISP為327秒。它可以在太空中重新點火50次，兩次點火之間的間隔時間可達300天。

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上篇完，中篇將介紹：

4、Yangel’s Hypergolic Rockets

楊格爾的自燃型火箭

5、Universal Family Of Rockets

通用型火箭家族

6、N1 Rocket Engines

N1 火箭引擎

本文許可CC BY-NC-SA 4.0協議(creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.zh)

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