據外媒報導，南太平洋島國湯加的洪阿哈阿帕伊島海底火山14、15日連續兩天劇烈噴發，首都努庫阿洛法出現1.2米高的海嘯。
火山噴發將火山灰等雜質噴射向天空，煙柱沖向19千米高空。大量火山灰、蒸汽在太平洋海面上騰起超級蘑菇雲。
According to the Tonga Geological Services, a massive underwater volcano erupTED just before sunset on Friday with plumes reaching more than 19 km above sea level. satellite images showed a huge eruption, with a plume of ash, steam and gas rising like a mushroom above the blue Pacific waters.
火山噴發還引發太平洋沿岸地區發布海嘯警報，日本、智利和澳大利亞等低洼沿海地區已進行疏散。
Tsunami advisories were issued for other Pacific islands, the Australian east coast, Japan, Chile and the US Pacific coast.
據美聯社報導，由於通信網絡受到干擾無法與外界溝通，目前仍未收到該國的人員傷亡及財產損失報告。
There were no immediate reports of injuries or on the extent of the damage because all internet connectivity with Tonga was lost at about 6.40 pm local time, AP reported.
專家預測，噴發可能會持續數周或數月，並提醒湯加民眾必須對此保持警惕。
湯加火山噴發引發局地海嘯
日美多國嚴陣以待
衛星照片顯示，火山噴發後，火山灰、蒸汽等在當地太平洋海面上空升騰而起，蔓延距離達241千米，巨大的聲響遠在美國阿拉斯加都可以聽到。
A cloud of ash and steam reached about 241 km across, an event captured by satellite images that have been shared by various meteorological agencies.
圖源：路透社
湯加首都努庫阿洛法很快觀測到海嘯。湯加氣象局說，湯加全境面臨海嘯、暴雨、洪水和強風的威脅。
社交媒體上的視頻顯示，大浪湧進居民住宅。有湯加民眾形容稱，「我們的家在搖動，之後海浪來了。我的弟弟還以為附近發生炸彈爆炸。」
On Tonga, home to about 105,000 people, video posted to social media showed large waves washing ashore in coastal areas, swirling around homes, a church and other buildings.
《紐西蘭先驅報》：第一批圖片顯示火山噴發、海嘯的超強破壞力，湯加居民警告說空氣有毒，水被污染
此次噴發還對太平洋地區產生了重大影響。湯加周邊國家斐濟和薩摩亞均發布海嘯警報。紐西蘭國家緊急事務管理局15日發布警告，北部和東部沿海地區可能會受到巨大海浪襲擊，該國軍方正隨時待命。
Authorities in the nearby island nations of Fiji and Samoa also issued warnings, telling people to avoid the shoreline due to strong currents and dangerous waves. In New Zealand, officials warned of possible storm surges from the eruption.
1月15日，湯加火山爆發後，智利地方當局發出海嘯預警，在海岸邊遊玩的人們紛紛撤離。圖源：路透社
日本岩手縣久慈港等多地觀測到海嘯，16日凌晨連續發布海嘯警報。美國西海岸和夏威夷州、加拿大卑詩省等地也發布了海嘯提示。
日本岩手縣居民16日接到海嘯警報後轉移至高地
中國自然資源部海嘯預警中心根據最新監測結果分析，中國沿海海域於16日凌晨監測到海嘯波，其中浙江石浦站最大海嘯波幅約20厘米，其餘潮位站海嘯波幅均小於15厘米。此次過程未對中國沿岸造成災害性影響。
湯加全國通訊中斷
傷亡數字無法統計
據《紐西蘭先驅報》報導，由於火山爆發，湯加全國的通訊都已中斷，紐西蘭總理阿德恩於今日表示，紐西蘭當局正在努力與湯加取得聯繫，但由於災情嚴重，難以展開評估工作，暫時還無法統計當地的傷亡及財產損失情況。
紐西蘭總理阿德恩資料圖，圖源：路透社
在16日的新聞發布會上，阿德恩對在場記者表示，自己看到的湯加災情畫面「非常令人擔憂」，但這場災害導致湯加全國通訊中斷，紐西蘭當局正在努力與湯加取得聯繫。
New Zealand's Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern says Tonga's capital Nuku'alofa suffered 「significant」 damage from a powerful volcanic eruption that triggered a tsunami, but there were no reports of injuries or deaths as of yet.
另外，紐西蘭國防軍已在調度救援飛機和船隻，外交部等機構正試圖通過包括民間渠道在內的各種方式，設法聯繫湯加的有關部門，並希望了解紐西蘭可以為當地提供何種幫助。
據路透社報導，自海嘯席捲湯加後，大約在15日晚6點40分，湯加當地的網際網路和電話線路就已出現大面積故障，導致全境10.5萬居民難以和外界取得聯絡。截至發稿前，各方尚無法了解海嘯對各地的破壞程度，只能通過衛星圖像研究當地災情。
Ardern's comments on Sunday came as Pacific nations and humanitarian groups struggled to establish communications with Tonga, a day after the disasters cut telephone and internet connections, leaving its 105,000 residents virtually unreachable.
火山噴發或將持續？
專家提醒湯加需保持警惕
據悉，湯加人口約有10.5萬，該國由湯加塔布、瓦瓦烏、哈派三大群島和埃瓦、紐阿等小島組成，共173個島嶼，其中36個有人居住。
洪阿哈阿帕伊島是高度活躍的湯加-克馬德克群島火山弧的一部分。而湯加首都位於火山噴發以南65公里的地方，許多地方據稱已被火山灰覆蓋。
圖源：路透社
奧克蘭大學的火山學家克羅寧（Shane Cronin）指出，這次噴發是湯加過去30年來最大的噴發之一。「橫向蔓延範圍廣，產生的灰燼多。」
Prof Shane Cronin, a volcanologist at the University of Auckland, said the eruption was one of the biggest in Tonga in the past 30 years.
"The most remarkable thing about it is how rapidly and violently it's spread. This one was larger, a much wider lateral spread, much more ash was produced. I expect there to be many centimeters of ash that have been deposited on Tonga," he said.
克羅寧還表示，對同一火山的歷史噴發的研究表明，目前的噴發事件可能會持續數周或數月。
他還提醒說，湯加人民必須對進一步的火山噴發，「尤其是在短時間內發生的海嘯保持警惕，並應避開低洼地區。」
衛星圖像顯示，噴發的大片火山灰以及氣體像蘑菇雲一樣，從藍色的太平洋海域升起。由於通信網絡受到干擾無法與外界溝通，目前仍未收到該國的人員傷亡及財產損失報告。專家預測，噴發可能會持續數周或數月，並提醒湯加民眾必須對此保持警惕。
相信很少有人真正親眼見過真正的火山噴發，感覺火山噴發離我們很遙遠。但其實火山噴發是一種很常見的自然現象，它是如何形成的呢？也有人會有這樣的疑惑：為什麼火山在海底噴發，為何海水無法將其澆滅？今天我們特別整理了TED科普頻道的英文短片，或許會解開你對火山噴發的一些疑惑。
，時長05:02
火山噴發背後的秘密↓↓↓ 上下滑動，查看演講稿 ↓↓↓In February of 1942, Mexican farmer Dionisio Pulido thought he heard thunder coming from his cornfield. However, the sound wasn’t coming from the sky. The source was a large, smoking crack emitting gas and ejecting rocks. This fissure would come to be known as the volcano Paricutin, and over the next 9 years, its lava and ash would cover over 200 square km. But where did this new volcano come from, and what triggered its unpredictable eruption? 1942年2月，墨西哥農民狄尼西奧·普利多（Dionisio Pulido）以為自己聽到了從玉米田裡傳來的雷聲。然而，這聲音並非來自於天空。聲音的來源是一道巨大的、冒煙的裂縫，正在噴射出氣體和岩石。之後，這條裂縫將被稱為帕里庫廷火山（Paricutin），在之後的九年，它的熔岩和火山灰將會覆蓋200多平方公里的區域。但是，這座新的火山從何而來？又是什麼引起了它出人意料的噴發呢？ The story of any volcano begins with magma. Often, this molten rock forms in areas where ocean water is able to slip into the Earth’s mantle and lower the layer’s melting point. The resulting magma typically remains under the Earth’s surface thanks to the delicate balance of three geological factors. The first is lithostatic pressure. This is the weight of the Earth’s crust pushing down on the magma below. Magma pushes back with the second factor, magmastatic pressure. The battle between these forces strains the third factor: the rock strength of the Earth’s crust. Usually, the rock is strong enough and heavy enough to keep the magma in place. But when this equilibrium is thrown off, the consequences can be explosive. 任何火山的故事都得從岩漿說起。通常，在形成這些熔融岩石的區域，海水能滲入地幔，降低地幔的熔點。由於三個地質因素之間的微妙平衡，這些生成的岩漿通常會留在在地表之下。第一個因素是岩石靜壓力（lithostatic pressure）。也就是地殼的重量將岩漿向下推的力。岩漿的反推力就是第二個因素，岩漿靜壓力（magmastatic pressure）。這場力的較量會作用在第三個因素上：地殼的岩石強度。通常，岩石足夠堅固、沉重，可以讓岩漿保持在原位。但是當這種平衡被打破，就有可能產生爆炸性的後果。 One of the most common causes of an eruption is an increase in magmastatic pressure. Magma contains various elements and compounds, many of which are dissolved in the molten rock. At high enough concentrations, compounds like water or sulfur no longer dissolve, and instead form high-pressure gas bubbles. When these bubbles reach the surface, they can burst with the force of a gunshot. And when millions of bubbles explode simultaneously, the energy can send plumes of ash into the stratosphere. But before they pop, they act like bubbles of C02 in a shaken soda. Their presence lowers the magma’s density, and increases the buoyant force pushing upward through the crust. Many geologists believe this process was behind the Paricutin eruption in Mexico. 火山噴發最常見的原因之一是岩漿靜壓力的上升。岩漿里含有各種各樣的元素和化合物，其中許多都溶解在熔融的岩石中。達到足夠高的濃度之後，水或硫這類化合物將不再溶解，而是會形成高壓氣泡。當這些氣泡到達表面，就可能會以槍擊般的力度迸裂。當成千上萬的氣泡同時爆炸，其能量可以將火山灰的煙柱送入平流層。但在爆裂之前，這些氣泡就像是搖晃過的汽水裡的二氧化碳。它們的存在降低了岩漿的密度，增加了向上推動地殼的浮力。許多地質學家相信這就是墨西哥帕里庫廷火山爆發背後的過程。 There are two known natural causes for these buoyant bubbles. Sometimes, new magma from deeper underground brings additional gassy compounds into the mix. But bubbles can also form when magma begins to cool. In its molten state, magma is a mixture of dissolved gases and melted minerals. As the molten rock hardens, some of those minerals solidify into crystals. This process doesn’t incorporate many of the dissolved gasses, resulting in a higher concentration of the compounds that form explosive bubbles. 這些上浮的氣泡有兩個已知的自然成因。有的時候，從更深的地底產生的新岩漿會帶來額外的氣態化合物。不過，當岩漿開始冷卻時，也可能會形成氣泡。當處於熔融狀態時，岩漿是溶解的氣體與熔化的礦物的混合物。當熔融的岩石變硬，其中的一些礦物會凝固為結晶。這個過程並不會吸收多少溶解的氣體，這導致了能形成爆炸氣泡的化合物的濃度升高。 Not all eruptions are due to rising magmastatic pressure— sometimes the weight of the rock above can become dangerously low. Landslides can remove massive quantities of rock from atop a magma chamber, dropping the lithostatic pressure and instantly triggering an eruption. This process is known as 「unloading」 and it’s been responsible for numerous eruptions, including the sudden explosion of Mount St. Helens in 1980. But unloading can also happen over longer periods of time due to erosion or melting glaciers. In fact, many geologists are worried that glacial melt caused by climate change could increase volcanic activity. 然而並不是所有火山爆發都是由岩漿靜壓力的上升引起的——有時候，上方岩石的重量可能會降低到危險的程度。山體滑坡可能會從岩漿房的上方帶走大量岩石，這降低了岩石靜壓力，並會立即觸發火山爆發。這個過程被稱為「卸荷」，它是無數火山爆發的原因，其中就包括1980年聖海倫火山的突然爆發。但是由於侵蝕作用或者冰川融化，卸荷也可能長期發生。事實上，許多地質學家正在擔心由氣候變化導致的冰川融化可能會增加火山活動。 Finally, eruptions can occur when the rock layer is no longer strong enough to hold back the magma below. Acidic gases and heat escaping from magma can corrode rock through a process called hydrothermal alteration, gradually turning hard stone into soft clay. The rock layer could also be weakened by tectonic activity. Earthquakes can create fissures allowing magma to escape to the surface, and the Earth’s crust can be stretched thin as continental plates shift away from each other. 最後，在岩石層強度不再足以抑制岩漿的地方，火山噴發也有可能發生。從岩漿中逸出的酸性氣體和熱量可以通過名為「熱液蝕變」的過程侵蝕岩石，逐漸將堅硬的石頭變成軟質的粘土。岩石層也可能會被板塊運動削弱。地震會製造出裂縫，令岩漿逃到地表，且當大陸板塊彼此遠離時，地殼可能會被拉伸變薄。 Unfortunately, knowing what causes eruptions doesn’t make them easy to predict. While scientists can roughly determine the strength and weight of the Earth’s crust, the depth and heat of magma chambers makes measuring changes in magmastatic pressure very difficult. But volcanologists are constantly exploring new technology to conquer this rocky terrain. Advances in thermal imaging have allowed scientists to detect subterranean hotspots. Spectrometers can analyze gases escaping magma. And lasers can precisely track the impact of rising magma on a volcano’s shape. Hopefully, these tools will help us better understand these volatile vents and their explosive eruptions. 遺憾的是，了解火山爆發的原因並不會使預測火山噴發變得更容易。儘管科學家們可以大致測定地殼的強度和重量，岩漿房的深度和熱量使得測量岩漿靜態壓的變化變得非常困難。但是火山學家們在不斷探索新的技術，以攻克這種岩石地形。熱成像技術的發展已經能讓科學家們探測地下熱點。光譜儀可以分析從岩漿逸出的氣體。雷射可以精確地追蹤上升的岩漿對於火山地形的影響。但願這些工具能幫助我們更好地理解這些蠢蠢欲動的火山口以及它們的大爆發。
In February of 1942, Mexican farmer Dionisio Pulido thought he heard thunder coming from his cornfield. However, the sound wasn’t coming from the sky. The source was a large, smoking crack emitting gas and ejecting rocks. This fissure would come to be known as the volcano Paricutin, and over the next 9 years, its lava and ash would cover over 200 square km. But where did this new volcano come from, and what triggered its unpredictable eruption?
1942年2月，墨西哥農民狄尼西奧·普利多（Dionisio Pulido）以為自己聽到了從玉米田裡傳來的雷聲。然而，這聲音並非來自於天空。聲音的來源是一道巨大的、冒煙的裂縫，正在噴射出氣體和岩石。之後，這條裂縫將被稱為帕里庫廷火山（Paricutin），在之後的九年，它的熔岩和火山灰將會覆蓋200多平方公里的區域。但是，這座新的火山從何而來？又是什麼引起了它出人意料的噴發呢？
語法知識提煉：分詞短語做後置定語
- 【本段的用法】現在分詞短語作後置定語。
現在分詞用作後置定語通常表示這個分詞的邏輯主語和它是一種主動的主謂關係，但由於句中已經有了謂語，所以在這種情況下只能用非謂語動詞中的現在分詞的形式來表示:
The girl sitting by my side is my sister. 坐在我旁邊的是我妹妹。
本段中的句子：
The source was a large, smoking crack emitting gas and ejecting rocks.
emit的邏輯主語是crack
- 過去分詞短語作後置定語
和現在分詞不同的是，過去分詞和它修飾的中心詞是一種邏輯上的動賓關係，有的時候經常可以看作是定語從句的省略形式:
This is a film directed by Zhang Yimou. 這是張智謀執導的一部電影。
以下生詞在火山爆發主題文章中很常見，了解一下：
Fissure /ˈfɪʃə(r)/ :( technical 術語 ) a long deep crack in sth, especially in rock or in the earth （岩石、土地等中深長的）裂縫，裂隙
lava and ash:熔岩和火山灰
Lava: hot liquid rock that comes out of a volcano （火山噴出的）熔岩，岩漿
The story of any volcano begins with magma. Often, this molten rock forms in areas where ocean water is able to slip into the Earth’s mantle and lower the layer’s melting point. The resulting magma typically remains under the Earth’s surface thanks to the delicate balance of three geological factors. The first is lithostatic pressure. This is the weight of the Earth’s crust pushing down on the magma below. Magma pushes back with the second factor, magmastatic pressure. The battle between these forces strains the third factor: the rock strength of the Earth’s crust. Usually, the rock is strong enough and heavy enough to keep the magma in place. But when this equilibrium is thrown off, the consequences can be explosive.
任何火山的故事都得從岩漿說起。通常，在形成這些熔融岩石的區域，海水能滲入地幔，降低地幔的熔點。由於三個地質因素之間的微妙平衡，這些生成的岩漿通常會留在在地表之下。第一個因素是岩石靜壓力（lithostatic pressure）。也就是地殼的重量將岩漿向下推的力。岩漿的反推力就是第二個因素，岩漿靜壓力（magmastatic pressure）。這場力的較量會作用在第三個因素上：地殼的岩石強度。通常，岩石足夠堅固、沉重，可以讓岩漿保持在原位。但是當這種平衡被打破，就有可能產生爆炸性的後果。
Magma: ( technical 術語 ) very hot liquid rock found below the earth's surface 岩漿；熔岩
mantle /ˈmæntl/: [ sing. ] ( geology 地 ) the part of the earth below the crust and surrounding the core 地幔
仿寫句式提煉
But when this equilibrium is thrown off, the consequences can be explosive.
這句話可以直接背下來，在表達「情況失衡產生惡劣後果」的意思時，可以直接搬過去。
Equilibrium /ˌiːkwɪˈlɪbriəm/:a state of balance, especially between opposing forces or influences 平衡；均衡；均勢
throw off: V to free oneself of; discard 擺脫; 拋棄， 此處意為「打破」
[匯總] 「歸因於」的中性表達
- thanks to sb / sth (informal) (sometimes ironic) ：because of someone or something歸功於某人/某事物; 多虧（幸虧）某人/某事物
thanks to 表示原因。通常指的是好原因產生好結果，比如：
The disease gained new prominence in 2014, thanks to the Ice Bucket Challenge.這種病因「冰桶挑戰」活動再次獲得關注。
但也可以指不好的原因產生不好的結果，有諷刺意味，比如：
Thanks to government price controls, motorists had to wait an hour in line to fill up their gas tanks.由於政府的物價管制，開汽車的人要排隊等一個鐘頭才能裝滿自己的油箱。
- put down to：PHRASAL VERB If you put something down to a particular thing, you believe that it is caused by that thing. 把…歸因於，比如：
You may be a sceptic and put it down to life's inequalities.你可能是個懷疑論者，並將其歸因於生活的種種不平等。
- attribute sth to sb / sth: to believe or say that a situation or event is caused by something把…歸因於…，比如：
She attributes her success to hard work and a little luck.她認為她的成功來自勤勞和一點運氣。
- Ascribe: V-T If you ascribe an event or condition to a particular cause, you say or consider that it was caused by that thing. 將…歸因於，比如：
An autopsy eventually ascribed the baby's death to sudden infant death syndrome. 一次屍檢最終把這名嬰兒的死亡歸因於嬰兒猝死綜合症。
- Due to: [ not before noun ] ~ to sth/sb caused by sb/sth; because of sb/sth 由於；因為，比如：
The team's success was largely due to her efforts.這個隊的成功在很大程度上是她努力的結果。
Most of the problems were due to human error. 多數問題都是人為錯誤造成的。
- Owe to: ~ sth to sb/sth~ sb sth to exist or be successful because of the help or influence of sb/sth 歸因於；歸功於；起源於，比如：
The play owes much to French tragedy. 這部戲頗受法國悲劇的影響。
- chalk sth ˈup to sth: ( NAmE informal ) to consider that sth is caused by sth 把某事歸因於，比如：
We can chalk that win up to a lot of luck. 我們可以把那次勝利歸因於好運十足。
- have someone to thank for something 表示某事的成功還得謝謝某人，也可以理解與這件事情的成功要「歸功於…」
In part, 「Demon Slayer」 has covid-19 to thank for its success.在某種程度上，《鬼滅之刃》的成功要歸功於疫情。
英文釋義：To have one to blame or acknowledge as the cause or source of something.
從釋義中可以看出，這個表達不僅用於「好的事情」，也可以是壞事，比如：
I have two sick toddlers to thank for my lack of sleep last night.兩個小傢伙生病了，所以我昨天晚上沒睡好。
語法知識提煉：Where引導定語從句
當where 引導定語從句時，Where前有表示地點的先行詞，where 引導的從句修飾先行詞，Where是關係副詞，在從句中作地點狀語，比如：
He's got himself into a dangerous situation where he is likely to lose control over the plane.他讓自己置身於險境，很可能失去對飛機的掌控。
本段中的句子：
This molten rock forms in areas where ocean water is able to slip into the Earth’s mantle and lower the layer’s melting point.
where的先行詞是areas；
Not all eruptions are due to rising magmastatic pressure— sometimes the weight of the rock above can become dangerously low. Landslides can remove massive quantities of rock from atop a magma chamber, dropping the lithostatic pressure and instantly triggering an eruption. This process is known as 「unloading」 and it’s been responsible for numerous eruptions, including the sudden explosion of Mount St. Helens in 1980. But unloading can also happen over longer periods of time due to erosion or melting glaciers. In fact, many geologists are worried that glacial melt caused by climate change could increase volcanic activity.
然而並不是所有火山爆發都是由岩漿靜壓力的上升引起的——有時候，上方岩石的重量可能會降低到危險的程度。山體滑坡可能會從岩漿房的上方帶走大量岩石，這降低了岩石靜壓力，並會立即觸發火山爆發。這個過程被稱為「卸荷」，它是無數火山爆發的原因，其中就包括1980年聖海倫火山的突然爆發。但是由於侵蝕作用或者冰川融化，卸荷也可能長期發生。事實上，許多地質學家正在擔心由氣候變化導致的冰川融化可能會增加火山活動。
Landslide：( also land·fall ) a mass of earth, rock, etc. that falls down the slope of a mountain or a cliff （山坡或懸崖的）崩塌，塌方，滑坡，地滑
Erosion: N-UNCOUNT Erosion is the gradual destruction and removal of rock or soil in a particular area by rivers, the sea, or the weather. 侵蝕
melting glacier:冰川融化
Glacier: N-COUNT A glacier is an extremely large mass of ice which moves very slowly, often down a mountain valley. 冰川
A is responsible for B 此處表示「A是B的起因」，或者「A導致了B的發生」，此時它的取義是：~ (for sth) being the cause of sth 作為原因；成為起因
Cigarette smoking is responsible for about 90% of deaths from lung cancer.因患肺癌而死亡者，約90%是吸菸所致。
語法知識提煉：部分否定
all的否定式可以是not all...或all...not，意思並不是「所有……都不……」，而是部分否定：「並非都……」、「不是所有的都……」。比如：
All that glitters is not gold. 並不是所有發光的東西都是金子。
Not all men can be masters. = All men cannot be masters.並非人人都能當頭頭。
Not all bamboo grows tall.並非所有的竹子都會長得很高。
這樣的部分否定還常見於與both, every的搭配中：
both 的否定式:not…both (或:both… not) "並非兩個……都……"， 比如:
I don't want both the books. 我不是兩本書都要。
Both (the) windows are not open. 兩扇窗子並不都開著。
every…的否定式:"不是每……都……"， 例如:
Not every book is educative. (或:Every book is not educative.)不是每本書都有教育意義的。
Not everyone likes this book. 並非人人都喜歡這本書。
This flower is not seen everywhere. 這花並不是隨處可見的。
那麼問題又來了：如果要對all, both, every做全部否定，該怎麼辦呢？
這時候，就需要用到它們相對應的否定詞了，比如no, none, neither, no one, never, not (never)… at all 等。舉幾個栗子:
All of them can do it.>全部否定<None of them can do it.
Both are good.>全部否定< Neither is good.
Everybody likes it. >全部否定< Nobody likes it.
Finally, eruptions can occur when the rock layer is no longer strong enough to hold back the magma below. Acidic gases and heat escaping from magma can corrode rock through a process called hydrothermal alteration, gradually turning hard stone into soft clay. The rock layer could also be weakened by tectonic activity. Earthquakes can create fissures allowing magma to escape to the surface, and the Earth’s crust can be stretched thin as continental plates shift away from each other.
最後，在岩石層強度不再足以抑制岩漿的地方，火山噴發也有可能發生。從岩漿中逸出的酸性氣體和熱量可以通過名為「熱液蝕變」的過程侵蝕岩石，逐漸將堅硬的石頭變成軟質的粘土。岩石層也可能會被板塊運動削弱。地震會製造出裂縫，令岩漿逃到地表，且當大陸板塊彼此遠離時，地殼可能會被拉伸變薄。
corrosion（腐蝕）比較常見，它的動詞形式是corrode /kəˈrəʊd/ :to destroy sth slowly, especially by chemical action; to be destroyed in this way 腐蝕；侵蝕
Acid corrodes metal. 酸腐蝕金屬。
tectonic activity板塊運動
Tectonic /tekˈtɒnɪk/:( geology 地 ) connected with the structure of the earth's surface 地殼構造的
Earth’s crust地殼
hold back：PHRASAL VERB To hold someone or something back means to prevent someone from doing something, or to prevent something from happening. 阻止，比如：
Stagnation in home sales is holding back economic recovery.住房銷售的停滯正阻礙著經濟的復甦。
[匯總] 關於「阻礙」的近義表達
- stymie：to prevent sb from doing sth that they have planned or want to do; to prevent sth from happening阻撓；阻礙；阻止；妨礙，比如：
Mr Monti's resignation will stymie further reform until after the election.然而蒙蒂的辭職會在至下一次大選期間內扼制改革的進一步推行。
- Get/stand in the way of: to prevent sb from doing sth; to prevent sth from happening 擋…的路；妨礙
He wouldn't allow emotions to get in the way of him doing his job.他不會讓情緒妨礙自己的工作。
- Thwart /θwɔːrt/ :[ VN ] ~ sth~ sb (in sth) to prevent sb from doing what they want to do 阻止；阻撓；對…構成阻力，比如：
to thwart sb's plans 阻撓某人的計劃
She was thwarted in her attempt to take control of the party. 她控制這個政黨的企圖受阻了。
Unfortunately, knowing what causes eruptions doesn’t make them easy to predict. While scientists can roughly determine the strength and weight of the Earth’s crust, the depth and heat of magma chambers makes measuring changes in magmastatic pressure very difficult. But volcanologists are constantly exploring new technology to conquer this rocky terrain. Advances in thermal imaging have allowed scientists to detect subterranean hotspots. Spectrometers can analyze gases escaping magma. And lasers can precisely track the impact of rising magma on a volcano’s shape. Hopefully, these tools will help us better understand these volatile vents and their explosive eruptions.
遺憾的是，了解火山爆發的原因並不會使預測火山噴發變得更容易。儘管科學家們可以大致測定地殼的強度和重量，岩漿房的深度和熱量使得測量岩漿靜態壓的變化變得非常困難。但是火山學家們在不斷探索新的技術，以攻克這種岩石地形。熱成像技術的發展已經能讓科學家們探測地下熱點。光譜儀可以分析從岩漿逸出的氣體。雷射可以精確地追蹤上升的岩漿對於火山地形的影響。但願這些工具能幫助我們更好地理解這些蠢蠢欲動的火山口以及它們的大爆發。
rocky terrain岩石地形
thermal imaging熱成像技術
volatile vents蠢蠢欲動的火山口
Volatile:( often disapproving ) ( of a person or their moods 人或其情緒 ) changing easily from one mood to another 易變的；無定性的；無常性的
explosive eruptions大爆發
conquer我們知道可以用在戰爭中，表示「征服、攻克」，此處則是技術上的攻克，取義是：to succeed in dealing with or controlling sth （成功地）對付，克服，控制
The only way to conquer a fear is to face it. 克服恐懼的唯一方法是正視恐懼。
語法知識提煉：動名詞做主語
- 【本段中的用法】動名詞(短語)有時可用作主語：
Drawing pictures will be fun．畫畫會是很有意思的。
Smoking may cause cancer．吸菸可能致癌。
Running is my favorite sport. 跑步是我最喜歡的運動。
Meeting you has been a great pleasure．見到你非常高興。
Talking mends no holes． 空談無濟於事。(諺)
- 由先行詞it引起的句子(作主語的動名詞移到句子後部)：
It’s no use doing that．這樣做沒有用。
It’s no good waiting here． 在這裡等沒有好處。
It’s nice talking you． 和你談話很高興。
It’s a waste of time arguing about it． 辯論這事是浪費時間。
- 由there is no引起的句子：
There is no joking about such matters． 這種事開不得玩笑。
There is no knowing what will happen next． 沒法知道以後將發生什麼事。
There was no telling what he was going to do． 沒法判斷他會怎樣干。
There was no arguing with her．沒法和她爭辯。
動名詞和不定式都可用作主語和表語。一般說來表示一般行為時多用動名詞，表示具體某次動作時多用不定式：
Smoking is prohibited 禁止吸菸。
It isn’t good for you to smoke so much．你抽這麼多煙對你身體不好。
Their job is building houses．他們的工作是蓋房予。
Our task now is to increase food production我們現在的任務是增產糧食。